T4 in neuronal tissue, Decreased leads to BDNF, Reduced

Hypothyroidism (i.e., induced by chemicals known to inhibit TPO or NIS, or by thyroidectomy, leading to low TH serum levels) is generally associated with lower levels of BDNF in brain tissues. As described in Conceição et al., 2016, thyroidectomized adult rats, apart from showing reduced TH levels, also presented reduced hippocampal gene expression of MCT8, TRα1, DIO2 and BDNF, which support a link between hippocampal hypothyroidism and reduced BDNF levels.

However, despite the fact that many in vivo studies have shown a correlation between hypothyroidism and BDNF expression in the brain, there are no studies simultaneously measuring the levels of both TH and BDNF in the brain. Therefore, no clear consensus can be reached by the overall evaluation of the existing data. There are numerous conflicting studies showing no significant change in BDNF mRNA or protein levels under hypothyroid conditions (Alvarez-Dolado et al., 1994; Bastian et al., 2010; 2012; Royland et al., 2008; Lasley and Gilbert, 2011).However, the results of these studies cannot exclude the possibility of temporal- or region-specific decreased BDNF effects as a consequence of foetal hypothyroidism. A transient TH-dependent BDNF reduction in early postnatal life can be followed by a period of normal BDNF levels or, on the contrary, normal BDNF expression in the early developmental stages is not predictive of equally normal BDNF expression throughout development. Moreover, significant differences in study design, the assessed brain regions, the age and the method of assessment in the existing studies, further complicate result interpretation.

- In Alvarez-Dolado et al. 1994, hypothyroid rats showed decreased trk (BDNF receptor) mRNA levels in the striatum on PND 5, PND 15 and in adults, increase of the low affinity neurotrophin receptor p75LNGFR mRNA in hypothyroid cerebellum on PND 5 and PND 15, decrease of nerve growth factor (NGF) mRNA in the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum of hypothyroid rats on neonatal hypothyroid rats on PND 15 and also after adult-onset hypothyroidism, whilst the relatively high expression of the two BDNF mRNAs did not change in any brain area.

- Bastian et al. (2010) assessed the effects Cu and Fe deficiencies on circulating and brain TH levels during development in pregnant rat dams rendered Cu deficient (CuD), Fe deficient (FeD), or TH deficient (by PTU treatment) from early gestation through weaning. Serum T4 and T3, and brain T3 levels were subsequently measured in PND 12 pups. Despite the remarkable decrease of serum TH and brain T3 induced by PTU treatment (and also by CuD and FeD), no significant changes of Bdnf IV mRNA levels were found. Authors commented that 'one explanation for this discrepancy is that many of the previous studies were performed using discrete brain regions, whereas this study was performed on whole-brain RNA'. Along the same line, in a follow up study, Bastian et al. (2012) could not find statistically significant reductions of Bdnf IV, Bdnf VI, and total Bdnf mRNA levels in hippocampus or cerebral cortex of Fe and TH deficient pups.

- Royland et al. (2008) assessed the effects of a PTU (TPO inhibitor) administration to pregnant rats from gestational day 6 until sacrifice of pups prior to weaning. However, PTU treatment did not change the expression of Bdnf at the mRNA level.

- In Lasley and Gilbert, 2011 study, different concentrations of PTU were administered to rat pregnant dams from gestational day 6 until weaning of the pups. Pups were sacrificed on PND 14, PND 21 and PND 100, analysis of TH serum levels was performed, along with analysis of hippocampal, cortical, and cerebellar levels of BDNF protein. While PTU caused a strong decrease of TH serum levels, no differences in BDNF protein were detected in the pre-weanling animals as a function of PTU exposure. On the contrary, dose-dependent decrease of BDNF levels emerged in adult males as a consequence of prenatal exposure despite the return to control TH levels. These findings reflect the potential for delayed impact of even modest TH reductions during critical periods of brain development on BDNF, a protein important for normal synaptic formation, as commented by the authors of this study.

It should also be considered that in severe models of TH deficiency, BDNF responsivity to TH is regulated in a promoter-, age-, and brain region-specific fashion (as described by Anderson and Mariash, 2002), and even modest differences of these parameters in study design may explain inconsistencies in study results.

The absence of significant changes in BDNF levels in the above cited studies could be also due to different sensitivity of analythical tools, experimental design and statistical processing of the results.

While PTU (TPO inhibitor) has been shown to decrease serum TH levels and brain BDNF protein levels and mRNA expression in offspring born from PTU-treated rat dams (Shafiee et al. 2016; Chakraborty et al., 2012; Gilbert et al. 2016), in Cortés et al., 2012 study, treatment of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats with PTU induced an increase in the amount of BDNF mRNA in the hippocampus, while the content of TrkB, the receptor for BDNF, resulted reduced at the postsynaptic density (PSD) of the CA3 region compared with controls. Treated rats presented also thinner PSD than control rats, and a reduced content of NMDAr subunits (NR1 and NR2A/B subunits) at the PSD in hypothyroid animals. While these data indicate differential effects elicited by PTU (i.e., TPO inhibition) on BDNF expression/regulation comparing the adult vs foetal brain, downregulation of TrkB receptors still leads to decrease signalling pathways regulated by BDNF.